Standardization is the activity of establishing rules and characteristics. Standardization - activities to establish binding norms, rules and requirements Standardization activities to establish development standards

Standardization- activities to establish rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary repeated use, aimed at achieving orderliness in the production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services.

Standard- a document in which, for the purpose of voluntary repeated use, the characteristics of products, the rules for the implementation and characteristics of the processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal, performance of work or the provision of services are established.

The standard may also contain requirements for terminology, symbology, packaging, marking or labeling and rules for their application.

Standardization is carried out in order to:

increasing the level of safety of life or health of citizens, property of individuals or legal entities, state or municipal property, environmental safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants and promotion of compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;

increasing the level of security of facilities, taking into account the risk of emergencies natural and technogenic character;

ensuring scientific and technological progress;

increasing the competitiveness of products, works, services;

rational use of resources;

technical and informational compatibility;

comparability of research (test) and measurement results, technical and economic and statistical data;

interchangeability of products.

Currently national authority for standardization according to the decree of the government of the Russian Federation is Federal Agency for Technical Regulation and Metrology Ministry of Industry and Energy Russian Federation.

National system of standardization includes the following components:

1) National standards.

The national standard is valid throughout Russia, in all industries, and not just in a single industry. National standards are approved by the national body of the Russian Federation for standardization.

National standards are applied on a voluntary basis, regardless of the country and place of origin of products, the implementation of production processes, operation, provision of services, types of transactions and persons who are manufacturers, performers, sellers, purchasers.

The application of the national standard is confirmed by the mark of conformity to the national standard.

GOST (state standard) is a document according to which the state, acting as a market participant, establishes requirements for products that it purchases from other market participants. The national standard has a broader meaning. In addition to government procurement requirements for products, it can be developed for other purposes, for example, to stimulate scientific and technological progress (standards with progressive indicators and a delayed implementation date), investments, regulation of foreign trade activities, etc.

The national standard can be developed by any person.

The main actors involved in the development of standards and their expertise are technical committees for standardization. In 95% of them, they are formed on the basis of the leading institutes of industries.

2) All-Russian classifiers of technical, economic and social information (abbreviated - all-Russian classifiers) - regulatory documents that distribute technical, economic and social information in accordance with classes, groups and are mandatory for use when creating state information systems.

3) Organization standards can be developed and approved by them independently based on the need to apply these standards to improve production and ensure the quality of products and services.

The standards of organizations are applied on a voluntary basis, regardless of the country and place of origin of products, the implementation of production processes, operation, provision of services, types of transactions and persons who are manufacturers, performers, sellers, purchasers.

The procedure for the development, approval, accounting, change and cancellation of the standards of organizations is established by them independently. That is, no agency has the right to establish rules and procedures that are binding on anyone and the procedure for developing, approving, recording, changing and canceling standards.

The organization's draft standard can be submitted by the developer to the technical committee for standardization, which organizes the examination of this project. Based on the results of the examination of this project, the technical committee for standardization prepares an opinion, which is sent to the developer of the draft standard.

That is, technical committees for standardization are obliged to conduct an examination of the project at the request of the developer and I have no right to refuse him in such an examination. The developer, in the future, can take into account the results of the examination or not.

Procedure for the development and approval of national standards

1. Any person can be the developer of the national standard.

2. The developer notifies the national standardization body about the development of the national standard.

The development notice must contain information about the provisions in the draft that differ from the provisions of the relevant international standards.

3. Familiarization stakeholders with the draft national standard and their submission of comments to the draft (in writing).

4. Modification by the project developer, taking into account the comments received from stakeholders:

- Conducting a public discussion of the project by the developer and drawing up a list of comments from interested parties, a summary of the content of the comments and the results of the discussion;

- The term for public discussion of the project from the date of publication of the notice of completion of the public discussion cannot be less than two months.

5. Completion of public discussion of the draft national standard:

- Submission by the developer of the draft national standard to the technical committee for standardization (along with a list of comments from interested parties);

- From the day of notification of the completion of public discussion of the draft national standard, the revised draft and the list of comments received from interested parties should be available to interested parties.

6. Submission by the developer of the draft national standard to the technical committee for standardization (together with a list of comments from interested parties):

- Carrying out by the technical committee for standardization of the project examination, preparation and submission to the national standardization body of proposals for the approval or rejection of the project;

- Adoption by the national standardization body of a decision on the approval or rejection of the national standard.

Standardization

Standardization is an activity to establish rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary reuse, aimed at achieving orderliness in the production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services. it is also an activity to establish norms, rules and characteristics in order to ensure the safety of products, works and services for the environment, life, health and property, technical and information compatibility, as well as product interchangeability; the quality of products, works and services in accordance with the level of development of science, technology and technology; uniformity of measurements; saving all types of resources; security economic objects taking into account the risk of natural and man-made disasters and other emergencies; defense capability and mobilization readiness of the country. Standardization seeks to achieve the optimal degree of ordering in a specific area by establishing provisions for universal and repeated application in relation to actual or potential tasks. This activity is manifested in the development, publication and application of standards.

The goals of standardization are:

• increasing the level of safety of life and health of citizens, property of individuals and legal entities, state and municipal property, facilities, taking into account the risk of emergencies of natural and man-made nature, increasing the level of environmental safety, safety of life and health of animals and plants;
• ensuring the competitiveness and quality of products (works, services), the uniformity of measurements, the rational use of resources, the interchangeability of technical means (machines and equipment, their component parts, components and materials), technical and information compatibility, comparability of research (test) and measurement results, technical and economic and statistical data, analysis of the characteristics of products (works, services), performance government orders, voluntary confirmation of the conformity of products (works, services);
• assistance in compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;
• creation of systems for the classification and coding of technical, economic and social information, systems for cataloging products (works, services), systems for ensuring the quality of products (works, services), systems for retrieving and transmitting data, facilitating work on unification.

Standardization is carried out in accordance with the principles:

• voluntary application of documents in the field of standardization;
• maximum consideration when developing standards legitimate interests interested parties;
• the application of an international standard as the basis for the development of a national standard, unless such application is recognized as impossible due to the inconsistency of the requirements of international standards with the climatic and geographical features of the Russian Federation, technical and (or) technological features, or for other reasons, or the Russian Federation, in accordance with the established procedures, acted against the adoption of an international standard or a separate provision;
• the inadmissibility of creating obstacles to the production and circulation of products, the performance of work and the provision of services to a greater extent than is minimally necessary to fulfill the goals of standardization;
• inadmissibility of establishing such standards that contradict technical regulations;
• ensuring conditions for uniform application of standards.

In technology, standardization leads to a decrease in production costs, since:

• allows you to save time and money by using already developed typical situations and objects;
• increases the reliability of the product or calculation results, since the applied technical solutions have already been repeatedly tested in practice;
• simplifies the repair and maintenance of products, since standard assemblies and parts are interchangeable (provided that the assembly was carried out without fitting operations).

Standardization can be ineffective in cases where the main goal of product development is to achieve very high functional characteristics, which are possible when the values ​​of the main parameters do not correspond to the standard ones.

Standardization is carried out by standards bodies, which are legally empowered to direct the development and approve regulations and other rules, giving them the status of standards. In Russia, the competent authorities in the field of standardization are GOSSTANDART of Russia and GosStroy. The basic normative document for standardization of the GOSSTANDART of Russia established the "State Standardization System" (GSS). The set of standards of the GSS RF (GOST R1.0, GOST R1.1, GOST R1.2, etc.) is a system of interrelated rules and regulations that determine the goals and objectives of standardization, the organization and methodology for carrying out standardization work in all industrial sectors of Russia. The SCAC establishes the procedure for the development, registration, agreement, approval, publication, circulation of standards different levels standardization and other normative documents, as well as control over their implementation and compliance.

Notes (edit)

Literature

• A. I. Yakushev, L. N. Vorontsov, N. M. Fedotov... Interchangeability, standardization and technical measurements. 6th ed., Rev. and additional .. - M .: Mashinostroenie, 1986. - 352 p.

see also

Links

Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

See what "Standardization" is in other dictionaries:

STANDARDIZATION- STANDARDIZATION, establishment of standard norms and requirements for individual products, to raw materials, to devices, to certain processes, etc. in order to improve their quality, simplify the production process and facilitate the interchangeability of parts. S. in conditions ... ... Great medical encyclopedia

standardization- and, w. standardization f. 1. Establishment of uniform mandatory standard samples for what l. Standardization of parts. BAS 1. The Joint Committee for the Standardization of Scientific Glass Instruments found and in 1924 unanimously proposed: recognized ... ... Historical Dictionary of Russian Gallicisms

Normalization, regularization, typification, rationing; standardization, unification Dictionary of Russian synonyms. standardization of noun typification Dictionary of Russian synonyms. Context 5.0 Informatics. 2012 ... Synonym dictionary

standardization- 1. Establishment of uniform norms and requirements of standards. 2. In psychodiagnostics, two forms of standardization are distinguished: 1) standardization and uniformity of instructions, examination procedures, materials, registration methods and other things when applied ... ... Big psychological encyclopedia

STANDARDIZATION, standardization, pl. no, wives. (tech., econom.). 1. Rationalization of the production of products by reducing numerous types to a certain number of standard samples, standards. Standardization of building parts. 2. Bringing ... ... Ushakov's Explanatory Dictionary

standardization- STANDARDIZATION, typing STANDARD, typical STANDARD, typing ... Dictionary-thesaurus of synonyms for Russian speech

Standardization- - activities to establish norms, rules and characteristics in order to ensure the safety of products, works and services for the environment, life, health and property; technical and informational compatibility, as well as interchangeability ... ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Lecture topic: Interpretation technique

Questions:

1. Concept, structure, reasons for interpretation.

2. Technique of interpretation of normative acts.

Question number 1.

Interpretation concept

Terminological introduction to the problem

Interpretation is typical activity lawyer, primarily in the Romano-Germanic system of law. Any lawyer working in the legislature or the executive branch, doctrinaire lawyer, practicing lawyer, judge, advocate, etc., often has to deal with the interpretation of the legal rules and facts that determine the application.

Let's first understand the terms.

IN Everyday life To 'interpret' means to find the exact meaning of a phenomenon, to make clear and obvious what seems fuzzy, ambiguous or confusing, to establish and explain connections and relationships between facts.

The term "interpretation" comes from the words "explanation", "meaning", "knowledge". The fact is that language (terminological shell of thought) and meaning often do not coincide.

For example, when the lecturer first meets the student audience, he looks around it and says: ≪Here are the chicks that have flown out of the nest called "school". Of course, what has been said cannot be taken literally. Most likely, he means that there are people here:

1) young in age;

2) those who have recently graduated from school;

3) do not have a lot of life experience;

4) without professional knowledge.

Along with the term taken from the Russian language, denoting a mental operation to establish the meaning and content of some phenomenon, process, document, text, including legal, there are other terms:

- ≪interpretation≫ - clarification. The term comes from Latin. It is used not only in jurisprudence but also in everyday language;

- ≪ exegesis≫- a term that was used in antiquity and the Middle Ages and meant the interpretation of prophecies, dreams. It was also used in Roman law. This term is not currently used;

- ≪hermeneutics≫- a term denoting the art of clarification, text analysis. It owes its origin to the god Hermes, who was the patron saint of eloquence, magic, herald and messenger of the gods. However, it was believed that he not only delivered the messages of the gods to people, but also interpreted them to make them understandable. The term “hermeneutics” is still used today. Moreover, some scholars propose to single out legal hermeneutics as a special part of the theory of state and law.

Scientific approaches to understanding the interpretation

IN the study of interpretation, as often happens in science, reveals a pluralism of opinions.

Under the interpretation in a broad sense is understood as a cognitive process aimed at explaining natural phenomena, social phenomena, including the rule of law.

In a narrower sense under the interpretation(interpretation) means the explanation of expressions, formulas, symbols, that is, the explanation of the signs of a natural or artificial language. It is in this sense that the term "interpretation" is most often used in jurisprudence.

However, the content of the legal norms is always behind the text. Therefore, the matter is not limited to decoding of texts. The interpreter also refers to the knowledge of the meaning of the legal phenomena behind the text of the norm of the law, the will of the law-making subject.

Special part

For example, a home mortgage. Strictly terminologically, mortgage means the issuance of loans on favorable terms for housing construction. But not everyone can take out a loan for housing, but only those who have at least a small income in the family and also make every effort to earn money and create suitable living conditions for themselves. What income you need to have, for how long a preferential loan is issued, in what amount, etc. - all this concerns the legal phenomenon as a whole, and not just the term "housing mortgage".

In legal science, there is three approaches to the understanding of the interpretation.

The first is based on interpretation the letters of the law are static an approach. We are talking about an interpretation that is based on the self-text of the law. The interpreter is guided by the following rule: all right is contained in the written law; the task of the lawyer is to extract it from there, following the will of the legislator. In other words, when interpreting, it is necessary by means of logical analysis to carefully study, article by article, only the text of the law itself. Perhaps, in this case, it will be necessary to raise the works published at the time of the preparation of the law, the materials of parliamentary debates. That is, the fetishism of the law is seen here, which leads to the loss of dynamism by the law.

Second approach assumes interpretation based on the spirit of the law, this dynamic an approach. It obliges the interpreter to take into account social phenomena that appeared after the adoption of the law.

The interpreter's motto in this case: "The law is not a dogma, but a guide to action." The goal of this sociological approach is to meet social needs. However, there are no less dangers here than in the first case, and the main one is the danger of turning to the path of political analysis.

Third approach is an complex and it is based on the simultaneous cognition in the process of interpretation of both the letter and the spirit of the law. It does not reject taking into account social realities, but nevertheless the interpreter must rely primarily on laws and take into account the spirit of law as a whole. It is this approach that is currently adopted by almost all countries of the Romano-Germanic family of law.

Interpretation is the activity of establishing the content of legal norms for their implementation.

Chapter 13. Interpretation as a species legal work 371

Structure of interpretation

Interpretation is a complex intellectual-volitional process, which is a set of mental operations.

Grouping them allows you to identify the structure of interpretation. However, there is no consensus among scholars on the question of the structure of interpretation. VN Kartashov systematized them and combined all points of view into three groups1.

Some authors believe that interpretation consists of mental operations aimed at clarification meaning of legal regulations. Many authors (S.I.Vilnyansky, B.V.Schetinin, V.V.

Other scholars (S. A. Golunsky, M. S. Strogovich, Yu. G. Tkachenko, etc.) understand by interpretation only clarification the content of the rule of law. Otherwise, why do you need to understand the meaning of the rule of law?

The third group of authors (S.S.Alekseev, V.O. Luchin, T. Ya. - an explanation of the will of the subjects of law-making expressed in the norms of law. At the same time, as S. S. Alekseev points out, the first part of the interpretation is mandatory, and the second is optional. However, in practice, most often both parts of the interpretation take place, since it is made, as a rule, not out of pure curiosity (although this is not excluded), but for the practical implementation of legal norms.

The latter point of view seems to be more convincing. Let's take it into service to characterize the structure of interpretation.

Interpretation-clarification

Clarification of the meaning of legal norms is the main and obligatory part of the interpretation. Interpretation-clarification acts as an internal thought process, therefore, as a rule, it does not have external forms of expression. This is what a judge does when deciding on a case. Of course, the judge can voice the course of his reasoning (just not in the presence of other persons, if the interpretation is in the deliberation room), but this is rare.

1 See: V. N. Kartashov Theory legal system society. P. 350.

372 Special part

Interpretation-comprehension can be carried out purely for cognitive purposes, for example, by students studying in law schools. Citizens who want to acquire certain legal knowledge do the same, so as not to have conflicts with the law. Sometimes their interpretation is carried out in the exercise of the law (for example, when intending to enter a university or work).

The clarification is related:

With the establishment of the authenticity and reliability of the interpreted normative act;

Reconstruction of the structure of the rule of law;

Analysis of the concepts of the rule of law;

Making judgments about the rule of law;

Evaluation of the rule of law or making an inference.

It is always necessary for everyone to understand the norm before implementing it:

When using your rights;

Fulfillment of their duties;

Compliance with prohibitions.

Interpretation-clarification always precedes clarification. For example, a citizen who received a refusal to expand his housing in connection with the birth of a child in the family came to the judge's appointment with a complaint. He considers the refusal to be unfair, since the Constitution of the Russian Federation enshrines the rule according to which every citizen has the right to housing (Article 40).

The judge argues:

A citizen is not among the poor, therefore, does not have the right to receive housing on the terms social recruitment;

Remains the purchase of housing on the basis of purchase and sale;

The incomes of the main contingent of our citizens today are small (the national average is about $ 500 a month). This citizen belongs to this category of citizens;

Cost of 1 sq. m of housing reaches $ 3500 (for example, in Moscow).

Conclusion: housing is practically inaccessible to citizens. The norm of the Constitution of the Russian Federation has a declarative character.

TESTS FOR THE EXAM

ON MEDICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL GOODS

1. Compliance of a medicinal product (MP) with the state drug quality standard is called:

a. drug standard

b. the standard of drugs

C. drug quality

d. quality certificate

e. drug regulations

2.K technological methods commodity studies include:

a. coding

B. packing

c. grouping

D. Marking

E. storage

3.indicators characterizing the degree of impact of the product on environment and a person in the process of production, storage, processing, consumption and disposal are called:

a. chemical safety

b. mechanical safety

c. radiation safety

D. environmental safety

e. sanitary and hygienic safety

4. Product certification is:

A. activities to confirm the conformity of products to the established requirements;

5. The main regulatory and technical document, according to which the quality control of finished medical products is carried out, are

a. certificates of conformity;

B. quality standards;

c. technical conditions.

6. The science of the fundamental characteristics of goods that determine their use values, and the factors ensuring these characteristics is called:

a. organization

b. the economy

C. commodity science

e. management

7. The ability of a product to meet specific human needs is called:

a. monetary value

B. use value

c. in demand

d. need

e. consumption

8.Indicators characterizing the absence of unacceptable risk that may arise from various types of bio-damage to pharmaceutical products and medical equipment are called:

a. chemical safety

b. mechanical safety

c. radiation safety

d. environmental Safety

E. sanitary and hygienic safety

9. Product standardization is:

a. activities to confirm the conformity of products to the established requirements;

b. dispensing to a pharmacy or medical institution state permits for certain types of activities;

c. activity to establish norms, rules, characteristics in order to ensure safety, technical and information compatibility, quality of goods, works, services, etc.

10. Specifications for medical devices consist of the following sections.

STANDARDIZATION

Standardization as a type of ordering activity

IN modern understanding standardization is interpreted as the activity of finding solutions to repetitive problems in the field of science, technology and economics, aimed at achieving the optimal degree streamlining in a certain area, ending with the development of a normative document.

Standardization Is an activity aimed at establishing rules and characteristics for the purpose of their voluntary repeated use, aimed at achieving orderliness in the spheres of production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services.

Standardization activities at all levels are aimed at meeting three basic socio-economic needs:

- ordering of objects created in the process of scientific and technical creative work of a person;

- establishment in normative documents on standardization of optimal organizational and technical, general technical, technical, and natural technical and economic norms and requirements;

- law enforcement, that is, the use and observance of the optimal requirements established in regulatory documents on standardization.

Goals and principles of standardization

The main goals standardization are:

- increasing the level of safety of life and health of citizens, property of individuals and legal entities, state and municipal property, facilities, taking into account the risk of emergencies of natural and man-made nature, increasing the level of environmental safety, safety of life and health of animals and plants ;

- ensuring the competitiveness and quality of products (works, services), uniformity of measurements, rational use of resources, interchangeability

technical means (machinery and equipment, their components, components and materials), technical and information compatibility, comparability of research (test) and measurement results, technical and economic statistical data, analysis of product characteristics (works, services ), execution of government orders, voluntary confirmation of conformity of products (works, services);

- assistance in compliance with the requirements of technical regulations;

- creation of systems for classification and coding of technical, economic and social information, systems for cataloging products (works, services), systems for ensuring the quality of products (works, services), systems for retrieving and transmitting data, facilitating work on unification.

Standardization is carried out in accordance with principles:

- voluntary application of documents in the field of standardization;

- maximum consideration in the development of standards of the legitimate interests of stakeholders;

- the application of an international standard as the basis for the development of a national standard, except in cases where such application is recognized as impossible due to the inconsistency of the requirements of international standards with the climatic and geographical features of the Russian Federation, technical and (or) technological features or for other reasons, or Russian The Federation, in accordance with established procedures, opposed the adoption of an international standard or a separate provision of it;

- the inadmissibility of creating obstacles to the production and circulation of products, the performance of work and the provision of services to a greater extent than is minimally necessary to achieve the goals indicated above;

- inadmissibility of establishing such standards that contradict technical regulations;

- providing conditions for uniform application of standards.

Types of standards

The types of standards determine the content of the standard depending on its purpose. These are fundamental standards, standards for products, processes, services, for control methods, for compatibility, for terms and definitions.

fundamental standards- GOST R 1.0-2004 Standardization in the Russian Federation. Basic provisions;

product standards- GOST 1908-88 Capacitor paper. General technical conditions;

process standards- GOST 18690-82 Cables, wires, cords. Marking, packaging, transportation, storage;

on control methods- GOST 28097-89 Varnished cloth. Accelerated heat resistance testing methods;

for compatibility- GOST R 51524-99 Electromagnetic compatibility of technical equipment. Variable speed electric drive systems. Requirements and test methods;

on terms and definitions - GOST R 52002-2003 Electrical Engineering. Terms and definitions of basic concepts.

Fundamental standard- a standard that has a wide scope and contains general provisions for a specific area of ​​activity.

GOST R 8.000-2000 State system for ensuring the uniformity of measurements.

Basic Provisions

GOST R 50779.0-95 Statistical Methods. Basic Provisions

SNiP 10.01-94 System of regulatory documents in construction. Basic provisions.

Fundamental standards establish general organizational and technical or organizational and methodological provisions for a specific area of ​​activity, as well as general technical requirements, norms and rules that ensure mutual understanding, technical unity, interconnection of various areas of science, technology, production. The underlying standard can be used directly as a stand-alone standard or serve as a basis for the development of other standards. Fundamental standards are classified into two subtypes: organizational, methodological and general technical.

Product standard– a standard that specifies the requirements that a product or a group of similar products must satisfy in order to ensure that it is fit for its intended purpose.

Product standards in the Russian Federation received the following names:

- standards of general technical conditions for products, they establish requirements for a group of similar products;

- standards of technical specifications for products, they establish requirements for one or several brands or models of products.

- requirements and conditions for technically efficient and safe disposal.

Process standard– A standard that specifies the requirements that a process must satisfy in order to ensure that the process is fit for its purpose.

At the present stage, standards for management processes within the framework of the product quality assurance system, it is the management of documentation, product purchases, personnel training, etc. The management process is a typical object of standardization in the organization's standards (STO), where the quality system is implemented.

The standards for production processes or work can establish requirements both for all possible and necessary aspects of standardization of objects of standardization of this type, and for some of these aspects, for example, a separate standard for the rules of product packaging.

Service standard- a standard that specifies the requirements that a service or group of homogeneous services must satisfy in order to ensure that the services are suitable for their purpose.

Standard for control methods– a standard that establishes methods, techniques, procedures for testing, measurements and (or) analysis.

Compatibility standard– a standard that specifies requirements for the compatibility of products or systems at their interfaces. Compatibility - the suitability of products, processes or services to be shared, not caused

undesirable interactions, use under specified conditions to fulfill specified requirements. Interchangeability is the suitability of one product, process or service to be used in place of another product, process or service in order to fulfill the same requirements.

Standard for terms and definitions- establishes terms and their definitions, containing the necessary and sufficient features of the concept.

The nature of the requirements in technical regulations and standards

In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation “On Technical Regulation”, the Federal Law “On Energy Saving” and a number of other laws of the Russian Federation, some of the requirements are categorized as mandatory. Mandatory are the requirements:

- ensuring the safety of products, processes and services for the life, health and property of citizens (radiation safety, explosion safety, biological, mechanical, fire, industrial, thermal, chemical, electrical, nuclear and radiation safety);

- ensuring electromagnetic compatibility in terms of ensuring the safety of the operation of devices and equipment;

- ensuring the uniformity of measurements;

- not misleading buyers.

If the state is in the process supervisory work found on the market that the product deviates from the requirements established in voluntarily applied standards, but they are referenced on the label, then the manufacturer can be held liable for deceiving the consumer.

The allocation of part of the requirements to the category of mandatory is due to the fact that the assessment of the conformity of products, processes of its life cycle to the mandatory requirements of regulatory documents, is controlled by the departments of technical control of enterprises and the state, at the expense of budgetary funding through the system of state metrological supervision and through the system compulsory certification or declaration of conformity. Conformity assessment of products, processes of its life cycle, performed works and services, quality management systems, management systems to all other requirements is monitored by the relevant services of enterprises and, if desired, under a business contract by a third party independent of the consumer and manufacturer (contractor) through the system - the topic of voluntary certification.

Technical regulations taking into account the degree of risk of causing harm, establish the minimum necessary mandatory requirements to products and to their life cycle processes

The current national standards contain a number of mandatory requirements. Those of them that do not contradict the goals of adopting technical regulations will remain mandatory until the corresponding technical regulations are developed. Once adopted and enacted, these standards will become voluntary documents.

National standards

National standards are part of the national standardization system. National standards are developed in accordance with the procedure established by the Federal Law of the Russian Federation “On Technical Regulation”.

One of the principles of standardization is that international standards are applied as the basis for the development of national standards. Exception

may be, if such an application is recognized as impossible due to the inconsistency of the requirements of international standards with the climatic and geographical features of the Russian Federation, technical and (or) technological features or for other reasons, for example, the Russian Federation, in accordance with the established procedures, opposed the adoption international standard or its separate provision.

National standards include applicable state and inter- state standards entered into force before July 1, 2003

Rostekhregulirovanie determines the procedure for the development, execution, presentation, approval, accounting, official publication of national standards of the Russian Federation, amendments to them and their cancellation.

Rules for the development and approval of national standards identified Federal law"On technical regulation".

Requirements for the construction, presentation and design of national standards goods are given in GOST R 1.5-2004.

Organization standards

Organization standards, including commercial, public, scientific organizations, self-regulatory organizations, associations of legal entities may be developed and approved by them independently based on the need to apply these standards to improve production and ensure product quality, perform work, provide services, as well as for the distribution and use of different areas knowledge of the results of research (testing), measurements and development.

The procedure for the development, approval, accounting, amendment and cancellation of standards of organizations is established by them independently, taking into account GOST R 1.4-2004 “Standardization in the Russian Federation. Organization standards. General Provisions» .

The organization's draft standard can be submitted by the developer to the technical committee for standardization, which organizes the examination of this project. Based on the results of the examination of this project, the technical committee for standardization prepares an opinion, which is sent to the developer of the draft standard.

The organization's standards can be developed for the products, processes and services provided in this organization, as well as for the products created and supplied by this organization to the internal and external markets, for the work performed by this organization on the outside and provided by it. on the service side in accordance with the concluded agreements (contracts).

In particular, objects of standardization within the organization there may be:

Component parts (parts and assembly units) of products being developed or manufactured;

Organization and production management processes;

Management processes;

Technological equipment and tools;

Technological processes, as well as general technological norms and requirements, taking into account the provision of safety for the life and health of citizens, the environment and property;

Methods; design, testing, measurement and / or analysis techniques;

Services provided within the organization, including social;

Nomenclature of raw materials, materials, components used in the organization;

Processes for performing work at the stages of the product life cycle, etc.

The organization's standards can be developed to ensure compliance with the requirements of technical regulations and the application in this organization of national Russian standards, international, regional standards (including interstate), national standards of other countries, as well as standards of other organizations.

The organization's standards should not conflict with the requirements of technical regulations, as well as national standards developed to facilitate compliance with the requirements of technical regulations.

The construction, presentation, design and content of the standards of organizations are carried out taking into account GOST R 1.5. Organizations independently establish the procedure for replicating, distributing, storing and destroying the standards approved by them. The organization's standards are approved by the head (deputy head) of the organization by order and (or) personal signature on the title page of the standard in accordance with the procedure established by the organization.

Questions for control and self-control

1. What is standardization?

2. What are the goals and principles of standardization in accordance with the law “On technical regulation”?

3. What is economic efficiency standardization?

4. What are the functions of standardization?

5. Describe the work of standardization bodies.

6. Than technical regulations different from the standard?

7. What are the rules for developing national standards?

8. What are the rules and procedures for developing standards for organizations?

9. What is national standard, what is its status and what is its content

10. Describe the main aspects of standardization.

11. What sets of standards do you know?

12. What are the ways of development of the national standardization system in Russia?

METROLOGY

General information about metrology

Metrology- the science of measuring physical quantities, methods and means of ensuring their unity and ways to achieve the required accuracy. The word “metrology” by its education consists of the Greek words “metro” measure and “logos” doctrine and means the doctrine of measures. The word "measure" in a general sense means a means of evaluating something. In metrology, it has two meanings: as a designation of a unit (for example, “square measures”) and as a means for reproducing a unit of magnitude.

The subject of metrology is the extraction of quantitative information about the properties of objects with a given accuracy and reliability. A metrology tool is a set of measurements and metrological standards that provide the required accuracy.

Metrology is divided into three sections:

– theoretical metrology considers general theoretical problems (development of the theory and problems of measurements, physical quantities, their units, measurement methods).

– applied metrology studies the issues of practical application of the development of theoretical metrology. She is in charge of all issues of metrological support.

– legal metrology establishes mandatory technical and legal requirements for the use of units of a physical quantity, methods and measuring instruments.

The main goals and objectives of metrology are:

- creation of a general theory of measurements;

- formation of units of physical quantities and systems of units;

- development and standardization of methods and measuring instruments, methods for determining the accuracy of measurements, the foundations of ensuring the uniformity of measurements and uniformity of measuring instruments (the so-called “legal metrology”);

- creation of standards and exemplary measuring instruments, verification of measures and measuring instruments. The priority subtask of this direction is the development of a system of standards based on physical constants.

Also, metrology studies the development of a system of measures, monetary units and counting in a historical perspective.

History of metrology. Historically important stages in the development of metrology are:

XVIII century - the establishment of the standard for the meter (the standard is kept in France, in the Museum of Weights and Measures; now it is more of a historical exhibit than a scientific instrument);

1832 - creation of absolute systems of units by Karl Gauss; 1875 - the signing of the international Metric Convention;

1960 - development and establishment The international system units (SI); XX century - metrological studies of individual countries are coordinated

International metrological organizations.

Milestones in the national history of metrology are the accession of Russia to the Metric Convention and the creation in 1893 by DI Mendeleev of the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures (modern name: "Mendeleev Research Institute of Metrology").

World Metrology Day is celebrated annually on May 20. The holiday was established by the International Committee for Weights and Measures in October 1999.

The rapid development of science, technology and technology in the twentieth century required the development of metrology as a science.

In the USSR, metrology developed as a state discipline, because the need to improve the accuracy and reproducibility of measurements grew with the industrialization and growth of the military-industrial complex. Foreign metrology was also based on the requirements of practice, but these requirements came mainly from private firms. An indirect consequence of this approach was government regulation different concepts related to metrology, which need to be standardized. Abroad, this task was undertaken by non-governmental organizations, for example, ASTM. Due to this difference in the metrology of the USSR and the post-Soviet republics, state standards (standards) are recognized as dominant, in contrast to the competitive western environment, where a private company may not use a poorly proven standard or device and agree with its partners about something else. option for certifying the reproducibility of measurements.

Metric system of units

Metric system Is the general name for the international decimal system of units, the basic units of which are meter and kilogram. With some differences in details, the elements of the system are the same all over the world.

History. The metric system grew out of the decrees adopted by the National Assembly of France in 1791 and 1795 to define the meter as one ten-millionth part of the section of the earth's meridian from the North Pole to the equator.

By a decree issued on July 4, 1837, the metric system was declared compulsory in all commercial transactions in France. She gradually replaced the local and national systems in other European countries and has been legally recognized as acceptable in the United Kingdom and the United States. By an agreement signed on May 20, 1875 by seventeen countries, an international organization was created to preserve and improve the metric system.

It is clear that by defining the meter as a ten-millionth part of a quarter of the earth's meridian, the creators of the metric system sought to achieve invariance and accurate reproducibility of the system. For a unit of mass, they took a gram, defining it as the mass of one millionth of a cubic meter of water at its maximum density. Since it would not be very convenient to take geodetic measurements of a quarter of the earth's meridian at every sale of a meter of fabric or to balance a basket of potatoes on the market with the appropriate amount of water, metal standards were created that reproduce these ideal definitions with extreme accuracy.

It soon became clear that metal standards of length can be compared with each other, introducing a much smaller error than when comparing any such standard with a quarter of the earth's meridian. In addition, it became clear that the accuracy of comparing metal mass standards with each other is much higher than the accuracy of comparing any similar standard with the mass of the corresponding volume of water.

In this regard, the International Commission on the meter in 1872 decided to take for length standard The “archival” meter, stored in Paris, “as it is”. Likewise, the members of the Commission took the mass standard archival platinum-iridium kilogram, “given that the simple relationship established by the creators of the metric system between a unit of weight and a unit of volume is represented by the existing kilogram with an accuracy sufficient for common

in industry and trade, and the exact sciences do not need a simple numerical ratio of this kind, but in the extremely perfect definition of this ratio ”.

In 1875, many countries of the world signed an agreement on the meter, and this agreement established a procedure for the coordination of metrological standards for the world scientific community through the International Bureau of Weights and Measures and the General Conference on Weights and Measures.

The new international organization immediately set about developing international standards for length and mass and transmitting copies of them to all participating countries.

Length and weight standards, international prototypes... International prototypes of standards of length and mass - meter and kilogram - were transferred to the storage of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures, located in Sevres, a suburb of Paris.

The standard of the meter was a ruler made of an alloy of platinum with 10% iridium, the cross section of which was given a special X-shape to increase bending stiffness with a minimum volume of metal. In the groove of such a ruler there was a longitudinal flat surface, and the meter was defined as the distance between the centers of two strokes applied across the ruler at its ends, at a reference temperature equal to 0 C.

The mass of a cylinder made of the same platinum-iridium alloy as the standard meter, with a height and diameter of about 3.9 cm, was taken as the international prototype of the kilogram. The weight of this reference mass, equal to 1 kg at sea level at geo- graphic latitude 45, sometimes referred to as kilogram-force. Thus, it can be used either as a standard of mass for an absolute system of units, or as a standard of force for a technical system of units, in which one of the basic units is a unit of force.

International prototypes were selected from a large batch of identical reference materials produced at the same time. Other measurement standards of this batch were transferred to all participating countries as national prototypes (state primary measurement standards), which are periodically returned to the International Bureau for comparison with international standards. Comparisons made at different times since then show that they do not detect deviations (from international standards) that go beyond the limits of measurement accuracy.

Weight, length and time

All basic units of the SI system, except for the kilogram, are currently defined in terms of physical constants or phenomena that are considered unchanged and reproducible with high accuracy. As for the kilogram, a method has not yet been found for its implementation with the degree of reproducibility that is achieved in the procedures for comparing various mass standards with the international prototype of the kilogram. Such a comparison can be made by weighing on

spring scales, the error of which does not exceed 1 · 10–8. Standards of multiples and sub-multiples for a kilogram are established by combined weighing on the scales.

Since the meter is defined in terms of the speed of light, it can be reproduced independently in any well-equipped laboratory. So, interference

Using the dashed and gage block method used in workshops and laboratories, it is possible to verify by comparing directly with the wavelength of light. The error with such methods under optimal conditions does not exceed one billionth (1 · 10–9). With the development of laser technology, such measurements have been greatly simplified, and their range has expanded significantly.

Likewise, a second, according to its modern definition, can be independently realized in a competent laboratory on an atomic beam facility. The beam atoms are excited by a high-frequency generator tuned to the atomic frequency, and the electronic circuit measures the time by counting the oscillation periods in the generator circuit. Such measurements can be carried out with an accuracy of the order of 10-12 - much higher than was possible with the previous definitions of the second, based on the rotation of the Earth and its revolution around the Sun. Time and its reciprocal - frequency - are unique in the sense that their standards can be transmitted by radio. Thanks to this, everyone who has the appropriate work-

Dio-receiving equipment can receive signals of exact time and reference frequency, which almost do not differ in accuracy from those transmitted over the air.

Mechanics. Based on the units of length, mass and time, all units used in mechanics can be derived, as shown above. If the basic units are meter, kilogram and second, then the system is called the ISS system of units; if - centimeter, gram and second, then - CGS system of units. The unit of force in the CGS system is called dyne, and the unit of work is called erg. There are a number of units with special names that are not included in any of the specified systems of units. Bar, a unit of pressure previously used in meteorology, is 1,000,000 dyne / cm2. Horsepower, an obsolete unit of power still used in the British engineering system and also in Russia, is approximately 746 watts.

Temperature and warmth

Mechanical units do not allow solving all scientific and technical problems without involving any other ratios. Although the work done when the mass moves against the action of the force, and the kinetic energy of a certain mass are by their nature equivalent to the thermal energy of a substance, it is more convenient to consider temperature and heat as separate quantities that do not depend on mechanical ones.

Thermodynamic temperature scale. The unit of thermodynamic temperature Kelvin (K), called Kelvin, is determined by the triple point of water, i.e. the temperature at which water is in equilibrium with ice and steam. This temperature is taken equal to 273.16 K, which determines the thermodynamic temperature scale. This scale, proposed by Kelvin, is based on the second law of thermodynamics. If there are two thermal reservoirs with a constant temperature and a reversible heat engine that transfers heat from one of them to the other in accordance with the Carnot cycle, then the ratio of the thermodynamic temperatures of the two reservoirs is given by the equality T 2 /T 1= –Q 2Q 1, where Q 2and Q 1 - the amount of heat transferred to each of the reservoirs (the “minus” sign indicates that heat is taken from one of the reservoirs). Thus, if the temperature of the warmer reservoir is 273.16 K, and the heat taken from it is twice the heat transferred to the other reservoir, then the temperature of the second reservoir is 136.58 K. If the temperature of the second reservoir is 0 K, then he won't

Heat is transferred to the children, since all the energy of the gas has been converted into mechanical energy in the adiabatic expansion section of the cycle. This temperature is called absolute zero. Thermodynamic temperature, usually used in scientific research, coincides with the temperature included in the equation of state of an ideal gas PV= RT, where P- pressure, V- volume and R Is a universal gas constant. The equation shows that for an ideal gas, the product of volume and pressure is proportional to temperature. This law is not exactly fulfilled for any of the real gases. But if we make corrections for virial forces, then the expansion of gases allows reproducing the thermodynamic temperature scale.

International temperature scales. The temperature can be measured with a very high accuracy (up to about 0.003 K near the triple point) by gas thermometry. A platinum resistance thermometer and a reservoir with gas are placed in a heat-insulated chamber. When the chamber heats up, the electrical resistance of the thermometer increases and the gas pressure in the reservoir rises (in accordance with the equation of state), while when the chamber is cooled, the opposite picture is observed. By measuring resistance and pressure simultaneously, the thermometer can be calibrated against the gas pressure, which is proportional to the temperature. Then the thermometer is placed in a thermostat, in which liquid water can be maintained in equilibrium with its solid and vapor phases. By measuring its electrical resistance at this temperature, a thermodynamic scale is obtained, since the temperature of the triple point is assigned a value equal to 273.16 K.

There are two international temperature scales - Kelvin (K) and Celsius (C). The Celsius temperature is obtained from the Kelvin temperature by subtracting from the last 273.15 K.

Accurate temperature measurements using gas thermometry are labor intensive and time consuming. Therefore, in 1968 the International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) was introduced. Using this scale, different types of thermometers can be calibrated in the laboratory. This scale was set using a platinum resistance thermometer, thermocouple and radiation pyrometer used in temperature intervals between some pairs of fixed reference points (temperature benchmarks). The MPTS was supposed to correspond to the thermodynamic scale with the greatest possible accuracy, but, as it turned out later, its deviations were very significant.

Temperature scale Fahrenheit... The Fahrenheit temperature scale, which is widely used in conjunction with the British engineering system of units, as well as in non-scientific measurements in many countries, is usually determined by two constant reference points - the temperature of ice melting (32º F) and boiling point of water (212 º F) at normal (atmospheric) pressure. Therefore, to get the Celsius temperature from the Fahrenheit temperature, subtract 32 from the latter and multiply the result by 5/9.

Heat units... Since heat is one of the forms of energy transfer, it can be measured in Joules, and this metric unit has been accepted by international agreement. But since the amount of heat was once determined by the change in temperature of a certain amount of water, a unit called a calorie has become widespread. Calorie equal to the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of one gram of water by 1 C. Due to the fact that the heat capacity of water depends on temperature, it was necessary to clarify the value

calories. There were at least two different calories - "thermochemical" (4.1840 J) and "steam" (4.1868 J). The "calorie" used in dietetics is actually a kilocalorie (1000 calories). The calorie is not a SI unit and has fallen out of use in most areas of science and technology.

Electricity and magnetism

All common electrical and magnetic units are based on the metric system. In accordance with the modern definitions of electrical and magnetic units, they are all derived units derived from certain physical formulas from metric units of length, mass and time. Since most electrical and magnetic quantities are not so easy to measure using the above-mentioned standards, it was considered that it is more convenient to establish, through appropriate experiments, derived standards for some of the indicated quantities, and to measure others using such standards.

Below is a list of SI electrical and magnetic units.

Ampere, unit of electric current, - one of the six basic units of the SI system. Ampere is the strength of a constant current, which, when passing through two parallel rectilinear conductors of infinite length with a negligible circular cross-sectional area, located in a vacuum at a distance of 1 m from one another, would cause an interaction force equal to 2 10-7H.

Volt, unit of potential difference and electromotive force. Volt is the electric voltage in the section of the electric circuit with a constant current of 1 A at a consumed power of 1 W.